Hochschilds Emotional Labour Theory

Hochs tiddlers ascertainingal Labour TheoryEmotional exertion was first put forward by sociologist Arlie Hochschild in 1983 in her classic book, The Managed Heart. Hochschilds (1983) thesis mostly focuses on the job of flight attendants and bill collectors where she described the work involved in existenceness nasty or slender and feature also been declaimed as toe and heel of the growing returns sector (Cited in Steinberg Figart, 1999 9) , also implying call centre, which has been targeted for analysis purpose in this study. Repercussions of rapid growing call centres globally have highlighted the importance of the servicing industry in recent years, whereby organisations accentuate on service quality where the shock is mostly upon selling a service with a smile. This new work organisation focuses on creating a pleasant service interaction for the clients or customers by good and pleasant customer service representative (CSR). As such, service employees argon expected to regulate the wound up conceptualisation and display certain pre-established and contextually appropriate feelings as per the organisations norms and market-gardening while interacting with customers due to the nature and characteristics of the job as well as the work environment1.According to Steinberg Figart (1999), mad advertize emphasis is laid on the relational rather than working class-based aspect of work, principally put together in service economies.It is take-intensive, it is skilled, effort-intensive, and produceive jade. It hits value, involves productivity, and generates profitSteinberg Figart (1999)For such type of perceptional research laboratoryour, wage is their reward that is, they get paid for their stirred work de publicds specifically for performing Emotional Labour (Grandey Brauburger, 2002 Zapf, 2002). Most of interactions nowadays include emotional childbed (Gibson, 1997 Pugliesi Shook, 1997). For long emotions have been of interest to psychologists and sociologists (Hochschild, 1983 Thoits, 1990), just recently they have been of particular interest to organisational researchers (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993, 1995 Fine globe, 1993 Morris Feldman, 1996, 1997).Arlie Hochschild (19837) defined emotional promote as the management of observeing to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display (Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). She also points to the need for an employee to induce or suppress feeling in influence to sustain the outward countenance that produces the proper state of mind in others (1983 Cited in Murphy McClure, 20077). Emotional labour is demarcated as having different characteristics that may be analysed along different dimensions. Firstly, it requires a personal contact external or within organisations entailing either face-to-face or voice-to-voice client contact (Zapf, 2002 Steinberg Figart, 1999). Emotional labour also requires a worker to produce an emotional state in another person w hile at the same time managing ones own emotions (Steinberg Figart, 1999132). Initially, Hochschild (1983) pointed to facial and bodily displays that were observable but further, researchers broaden the view including words, voice tone and other deportments shaped by efforts ensuren by the person (Wharton Erickson, 1993). Emotional expression is required to follow certain rules, that is, display rules of the organisation (Grandey Brauburger, 2002 Humphrey, 2000 Zapf, 2002). This directs to the alignment of emotional labour with call centre environment due to their respective characteristics such as voice-to-voice or face-to-face, emotions expressed and following display rules during interactions for customer satisfaction.Ashforth Humphreys (1993, 1995) contribution to emotional labour have pushed forward Hochschilds thesis by incorporating the concept of social individuation into their study of emotions in the workplace. They define emotional labour as the act of displaying t he appropriate emotion (199390). Their definition differs from Hochschilds definition as they focus on demeanor rather than on the presumed emotions underlying behaviour (Ashforth Humphrey, 199390) because they see it as a possibility to conform to display rules without the employee having to manage feelings (Ashforth Humphrey, 199390). Their focus is on what the employee should feel at work instead of focusing on feeling rules (Hochschild, 1983), which head ups us to display rules which be slackly a function of societal norms, occupational norms, and organisational norms3(Rafaeli Sutton, 1989) ( class 1).Figure 1 Rafaeli Suttons Factors that influence Emotions Expressed by Role Occupants.Source Rafaeli, A., Sutton, R. I., The expression of emotion in organisational life, Research in Organisational Behaviour, Vol. 11, p.5. Copyright (1989)Surface playing and Deep ActingHochschild (1979, 1983) argued that emotional labour is performed in one of two ways. First, the service provider may act in accordance with display rules through Surface Acting, which involvesSimulating emotions that argon not actually felt, which is accomplished by careful presentation of verbal and non verbal cues, such as facial expression, gestures and voice tone.Ashforth Humphrey (199392)Hereby, the service meanss simulate emotions that are not felt by the latter. However, out-of-doors acting does not mean that the agent do not experiences any emotion but instead a display emotion that is not felt (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). This causes a discrepancy amidst felt and displayed emotion as we will discuss in this study. There are also cases where the agent is or is not particularly concerned about the welfare of the customer which is referred to as faking in good faith and faking in adult faith by Rafaeli Sutton (1987 32 Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Surface acting tin can also be part of acting typically discussed as Impression counselling (Ashforth Humphrey, 1993) and this converges with Goffmans dramaturgical analysis of daily encounters (Goffman, 1959, 1969).The second means of complying with display rules is through Deep Acting, which involves a service agent attempting to actually experience or feel the emotions that one wishes to display (Ashforth Humphrey, 199393). Deep acting can also be described as actors psyche themselves for a role in the same way, the service provider psyches himself or herself for a desired emotion (Ashforth Humphrey, 199393).Surface acting focuses on ones outward behaviour, deep acting focuses on ones inner feelings (Hochschild, 1983). The concept of surface and deep acting refer toThe effort or act of trying to display the appropriate emotion, not the outcomes that is, the quality of the effort and the effects this effort has on target audienceHochschild (1979)4Further, the efforts may become effortless, for instance, in call centre works, the pre-described scripts and repetitive nature of the work makes dee p and surface acting such that emotional labour becomes relatively effortless (Ashforth Fried, 1988 Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993).In the same vein, Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) include the spontaneous and genuine emotions in his conceptualisation of emotional labour, which explains the instances where a service agent spontaneously and genuinely experiences and expresses the expected emotion Ashforth and Humphrey (199394). The service provider may naturally feel what he or she was expected to express without having to fake the emotion as per Hochschild (1983) thesis. Ashforth and Humphreys perception was no compliance but instead, a natural expression of feelings, for instance, a nurse who feels sympathy at the sight of an injured child has no need to act (Ashforth Humphrey, 199394).Grandey (2000) provides another conceptualisation of emotional labour5in an attempt to refine the hold of emotional labour and the display rules involved. She defines emotional labour as the proce ss of regulating both feelings and expression for organisational goals (2000 97). Grandey (2000) argued that previous conceptualisation of emotional labour does not include the emotion management process that employees undertake to conform to organisational display rules. She also developed a model to illustrate her conceptualisation of emotional labour which is based on the emotion regulation lab studies and emotional labour house studies. The situational cues of her model illustrated below (Figure 2) include the interactions expectations based on frequency, duration, variety, and display rules based upon Morris Feldman Dimensions of Emotional Labour (1997).Figure 2 Grandeys Emotion Regulation ProcessSource Grandey, A.A., Emotion Regulation in the Workplace A new Way to create by mental act Emotional Labour, Journal of Occupational wellness Psychology, Vol. 5, No. 1, p.95-110.Dimensions of Emotional LabourMorris Feldman (1996) also contributed to the conceptualisation of emoti onal labour. They define emotional labour as the effort, planning, and control needed to express organisationally desired emotion during interpersonal transactions (Morris Feldman, 1996 987). Their perception of emotional labour differs from Hochschilds thesis in the disposition that instead of focusing of the management of feeling (Hochschild, 1983), they instead, focus on expressive behaviour, because it is appropriate expressive behaviour that is organisationally desired (Morris Feldman, 1996988). The level of planning, control, and skill that are required in organisations to display appropriate emotions is what has much significance to them (Morris Feldman, 1996 Cited in Lewig Dollard, 2003). So, Morris Feldman (1996) conceptualise the construct of emotion labour along four dimensions6(Figure 3) namely, the frequency of appropriate emotional display, the attentiveness to required display rules, variety of emotions to be displayed, and emotional dissonance.Figure 3 Morris Feldman Four Dimensions of Emotional labourSource Morris, J.A., Feldman D.C., The Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences of Emotional Labour, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 21, No. 4, p.986-1010.Consequences of Emotional LabourThough emotional labour can create economic benefits for the organisations and the individual such as self-efficacy and task effectiveness, it can also and most probably, has negative consequences on both physical and mental health on the employees.Positive ConsequencesStaw et al. (1994) emphasized that employees with tyrannical emotions will be more successful in organisations than employees with negative emotions.Ashforth and Humphrey (1993) offerd that expression of positivistic emotions is related to increased task effectiveness. They discussed that compliance with display rules comforts task effectiveness if the emotions displayed by service provider is the emotion is alleged to be sincere to a certain extent (Rafaeli Sutton, 1989 Feldman , 1984 Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Ashforth Humphrey (1993) propose that emotional labour can increase self efficacy of the employees and also increase personal well-being by fulfilling task requirements and task effectiveness7. In the same vein, they noted that by fulfilling social expectations, emotional labour makes interactions more predictable and avoids embarrassing interpersonal problems that might otherwise disrupt interactions (Ashforth Humphrey, 199394). Rafaeli Sutton (1987) also found that positive emotions of service employee brings about immediate sale, or cause revisit of customers and can be beneficial to the organisation through word of mouth.Ashforth Humphrey (1993) also argued that emotional labour may facilitate self-expression. This is due to the certain degree of autonomy in the enactment of display rules. They disputed that at least some of the legitimate self were projected by the service agents into the enactment, for example, Jackall (1978) described ho w bank tellers modified organisationally directed display rules to suit their own interpersonal styles (Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 1993). Thus, this may facilitate self-expression. The expressions of positive emotions by service employees also influence outcomes that are prominent to the role occupant like financial wellbeing, mental and physical well being (Rafaeli Sutton, 1987). Staw et al. (1994) also found that employees expressing positive emotions are oftentimes more appreciated and receive favourable evaluations and better pay than those with negative expressions. Cote and Morgan (2002) also supported that positive emotions can increase job satisfaction as service employees displaying such emotions are judged by others as sociable, pleasant, and likeable (Staw et al, 1994). And this supports organisations as service employees are in better positions to gain control over demanding customers (Mishra, 2006).Negative ConsequencesEmotional labour is a double-edge sword (Ashfor th Humphrey, 1993). Most studies undertaken reflected the negative aspects of emotional labour which is more inflicting on individual mental and physical well-being, and eventually affects organisational needs.Emotional Dissonance, Burnout, and Emotional enervationEmotional labour can become dysfunctional for the worker when dissonance surrounded by felt emotions and displayed emotions is experienced (Lewig Dollard, 2003268). This discrepancy between felt and display emotion is termed as emotional dissonance (Lewig Dollard, 2003). Hochschilds (1983) interest in emotional labour derived from what she argues as pernicious effects of both surface acting and deep acting on the labourer (Cited in Ashforth Humphrey, 199396). Displaying emotions that are not felt, creates a sense of strain, resulting in what Hochschild (1983) termed as emotive dissonance or cognitive dissonance. Hochschild (198390) defined emotional dissonance as maintaining a difference between feeling and feigning. This discrepancy is greens because even though display rules regulate expressive behaviour, they cannot regulate expressive experience (Ashforth Humphrey, 199397). According to Ashforth Humphrey (199396), emotional dissonance may cause the individual to feel false and hypocritical8. In due course, this dissonance could lead to personal and work-related maladjustment such as low self-esteem, depression, cynicism, and alienation from work (Lewig Dollard, 2003)9. Correspondingly, Ashforth Humphrey argued that deep acting may impair ones sense of authentic self (1993, p.97) and ones well-being, leading to self-alienation. They disputed that as a person loses touch of its authentic self, this may damage ones ability to express genuine expression (Ashforth, 1989). Finally, according to Ashforth and Frieds Study (1988) of mindlessness, with each interaction, deep acting becomes difficult for the service provider10.Many studies have been undertaken upon the link between emotional disso nance, emotional exhaustion, and burnout and results have been very prominent (Pierce, 1996 Pugliesi, 1999 Pugliesi Shook, 1997). Morris and Feldmans study also made an impact on this kin (Figure 4), explaining the antecedents and consequences of emotional labour. Figure 4 shows the link that Morris and Feldman (1996) illustrated, winning emotional dissonance as the fourth dimension of the emotional labour construct which leads to emotional exhaustion and job dissatisfaction.Figure 4 Morris Feldman Antecedents and Consequences of Emotional labourSource Morris, J.A., Feldman D.C., The Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences of Emotional Labour, The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 21, No. 4, p.986-1010.Emotional exhaustion is a specific stress-related reaction, and is a key component of burnout (Maslach, 1982 Cited in Morris Feldman, 1996). Emotional exhaustion refers to a state of depleted energy caused by excessive emotional demands (Saxton, Phillips, Blakeney, 1991, Cit ed in Morris Feldman, 1996, p.1002) made on service providers interacting with customers or clients. It has also been associated with withdrawal behaviour and decreases in productivity (Cordes Dougherty, 1993 Jackson, Schwab Schuler, 1986). Lewig and Dollard (2003) found that emotional dissonance intensifies the level of emotional exhaustion at high levels of psychological demands, indicating that jobs having more emotional demands result in more emotional dissonance, hence more emotional exhaustion11. Maslachs (1982) work also suggests that greater planning for a wide variety of emotional displays is emotionally exhausting.Emotional exhaustion is a component of burnout, which is a stress found typically in service industries (Brotheridge Grandey, 2002 Grandey, 2000 Maslach, 1982). Hochschild (1983) indicated that burnout was a likely outcome for emotional labourers who determine too completely with their jobs (also see Maslach, 1982 Maslach Jackson, 1981). Initially, there is no standard definition of burnout, but most researchers conceptualisation of burnout refers to burnout as a syndrome consisting of emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation and cut personal accomplishment that results from interactions with people in some capacity (Maslach Schaufeli, 1993). The research supports that emotional labour is related to burnout and to emotional exhaustion specifically (Abraham, 1998, 1999c Brotheridge Lee, 2002 Zapf et al., 2001). Similarly, Kruml Geddes (2000) examined the relationship between emotional dissonance and burnout and results proved that those faking their emotions risk becoming emotionally exhausted.Job Satisfaction, Autonomy, and PerformancePrevious theoretical work on emotional labour suggests that a negative relationship between emotional labour and job satisfaction. Hochschild (1983) argued that those employees suffering from burnout is usually a result of low autonomy and high job involvement, in the end leading to low job satisfact ion. According to Parkinson (1991), employees masking their felt emotions, lead to job dissatisfaction. This result from the consequences of emotional dissonance caused from the discrepancy between felt and displayed emotions which lead to exhaustion and burnout, eventually, affects job performance and job satisfaction12.Gendered Aspect of Emotional LabourWork organisations and jobs are gendered (Acker, 1990) and this involves jobs requiring interactive work and emotional labour (Cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001). Traditionally, a differential form of emotional labour has been associated with jobs performed mostly by women. Nevertheless,Women do not experience more burnout or inauthenticity than men because of the type of jobs they perform, but rather because managing feelings of agitation have a different effect on women than it does on men.Erickson Ritter (2001147)Thus, conventionally, Hochschild (1983) chose to study Flight Attendants and Bill Collectors as she believed these we re jobs requiring high levels of emotional labour, or she wanted to illustrate the extent to which such jobs were emotionally gendered (Cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001) . As per Acker (1990), emotionally gendered jobs should display emotional patterns of emotional experience that should be distinctive for man and woman13. The gendered dimension of emotional labour can be illustrated through Rafaeli Sutton (1989) three norms, namely, the social norms, the occupational norms, and the organisational normsSocial NormHistorically, emotional expression has been differential in society and organisations, in that women have the tendency to perform more deferential forms of emotional labour than men (Erickson Ritter, 2001). Women are generally thought to be more expressive than men (Brody Hall, 1993). This issue was traditionally due to the social status of man and woman. Women are socialised to express most feelings freely provided anger and man are expected to suppress all feelings but to express anger openly (Sharkin, 1993). In organisations, mens anger is often acceptable and it is generally characterised by shouting and yelling, whereas women express their anger differently and usually characterised by tears (Hoover Dempsey, Plas Wallston, 1986). Hochschild (1983 163) suggested that woman have a weaker status shield against the displaced feeling of others (Cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001). According to Hochschild (1983), the absence of the social shield implies that women are more like to be exposed to others anger and frustration and will lack the structural resources to oppose back those emotional attacks14(cited in Erickson Ritter, 2001).Occupational NormsOccupational norms regarding the appropriateness of emotional displays at work are typically learned during the professional socialisation process.The extents to which organisations have explicit display rules and monitor employees expressive behaviour will depend on the level of skill and training requ ired to perform the work.Morris and Feldman (1996 997)Elaine Hall (1993) and robin Leidner (1991, 1993) studies also focused on the gendered dimension of emotional labour which reflected on the service of a restaurant15. They argued that this organisational behaviour structured the interaction of women servers as familiar objects (Cited in Steinberg Figart, 199916). Jennifer Pierce (1995) also echoed the gendered occupational dimension of emotional labour with her study of paralegals, where woman paralegals entailed in tremendous emotional labour job capacitance16. Similarly, OBrien study (1994) of the nursing profession in Great Britain focused on this aspect of emotional labour where many of the skills possessed by nurses derived not from the qualities of being a nurse but from the qualities of being a woman17 (1994399).The case of call centres that have become a new organisational phenomenon nowadays is greatly emotionally gendered. The call centre industry quickly arrived at the realisation that women sell (Carter Butler, 20086). Foreseths (2005) study demonstrates how feelings are commoditized and womans femininity and sexuality are sold alongside the companys product such as airline tickets, hotel reservations amongst others (Cited in Carter Butler, 20086). Most often, women are expected to make use of their inherent caring and nurturing nature to persuade customers to purchase the products or service or assist customers in their inquiries and complaints (Brannan, 2005 Fernandez et. al., 2005 894-895).These situations provide examples of how the issue of gender makes a difference in occupations and how with the use of display rules, the gendered dimension of emotional labour is strengthen (Fineman, 1996). National culture also play an important part on the gendered emotional labour depending on which type of policies organisations employ and where national culture shape organisational culture, hence influencing the emotional labour (Aaltio-Marjosola , 1994 Gheradi, 1994).Organisational NormsAn organisations culture will have the most persistent influence on display rules and associated emotions (Rafaeli Sutton, 1989 Van Maanen Kunda, 1989). Gender is regard within these social norms, which vary by culture18(Steinberg Figart, 1999). Organisational culture consistsOf symbols, beliefs, and patterns of behaviour learned, produced, and created by the people who devote their energies and labour to the life of an organisationSprati (1992342)Consequently, this pattern of behaviour, which of itself is gendered, is reflected in their tacit rejection of emotional feelings at work (Sprati, 1992). Aaltio-Marjosola (1994) noted that gender stereotypes are becoming cultural product of the organisation. Hence, where service providers are interacting in this context, they believe that they are acting in their own, but in fact they are acting as per organisational norms and emotional displays become part of compliance and not emotional attac hment, and no commitment.In the context of emotional exchanges, emotional dissonance and its relationship to emotional exhaustion and burnout are important. Research indicates that not only women are required to subscribe to in emotional labour more than man (Morris Feldman, 1997 Rafaeli Sutton, 1989 Wharton Erickson, 1993), but at the same time, it is clear that woman express more positive emotions toward other than man (Stoppard Gunn Gruchy, 1993). Man, on the other hand, is restricted to those emotions that are considered manly to the society. As discussed supra through Rafaeli and Sutton three norms that demonstrate the gendered dimension of emotional labour, man and woman are expected different forms of emotional labours, so this lead to more emotional dissonance, more emotional exhaustion, and more burnout. The gendered aspects of emotional labour can also affect job satisfaction and is illustrated through Stenross and Kleinmans study of sheriff (1989) (Steinberg Figart, 1999).The Self and Emotional LabourWhat is of utmost importance is how the self of the individual is mostly affected as a result of emotional labour. The relevant questions shifts from Hochschilds19How is the self eroded or alienated by commodification? to What kinds of selves are constructed through labour processes? What are the social possibilities for the construction of selves and relationship within a given organisation? and How do Workers creatively negotiate, build upon, and negate these parameters?Ashforth and Humphreys social identity theory (1993) described the social possibilities that may construct the self of an emotional labourer and its relationship to organisations levels. They argued thatThe self concept is comprised of a personal identity that encompasses distinctive characteristics and traits and a social identity encompassing outstanding group classifications20.Ashforth Humphrey (199398) Ashforth Mael (1989) Tajfel Turner (1985)Ashforth Humphrey (1993) als o noted thatindividuals who define themselves in terms of social groups and idiosyncratic characteristics whose display rules are discrepant with those of the organisational role are more apt to experience emotive dissonance and self-alienation (p.99).The self is constructed and modified upon the social group the individual identifies himself or herself with. The more strongly one identifies with the role, the greater the positive impact that fulfilling those expectations has on ones psychological well-being21 (Ashforth Humphrey, 199399). Emotions are the construction of Identity but with deep and surface acting in emotional labour, this creates internal pressures on the individuals and eventually causes a dissonance (Richman, 1988 Sutton, 1991). Workers who construct emotional labour as performing a role do not have a sense of authenticity (Haman, 200589).The work of Michel Foucault is inevitable when talking about the self in emotional labour. His work mainly evolves the influenc es of power and control on the inner sector of an individual. Foucault described the discourse of organisational and human needs and the case of emotional labour in service sectors has largely been a debatable subject. In performing service work, employees are not only consenting to degrading the self, they work on their own identities in ways that sometimes confirm with organisational norms, but very often do not.Whenever one is dealing with a multiplicity of individuals on whom a task or a particular form of behaviour must be imposed, the visible schema may be usedFoucault (1977 205)So, emotional labour is very well concerned with the foucauldian analysis, where display rules are imposed on the individual, the panoptic schema may be used. In late eighteenth century, Jeremy Bentham design a prison22, which was later adapted by Foucault, and the main idea base the construct of the prison was to make the individual feel that they were constantly under carceral gaze and they would eventually internalise and disciplined and controlled themselves accordingly (Foucault, 1977 201).He who is subjected to a field of visibility, and who knows it, assumes responsibility for the constraints of power he makes them play spontaneously upon himself he inscribes in himself the power relation in which he simultaneously plays both roles he becomes prescript of his own subjectionFoucault (Discipline, 202-203)In early 1990s, the panopticon was perceived to be electronic in the workplace with new technologies advancements that increase ways of surveillance and monitoring through internet, telephones, ATMs. Credit cards, and the increasing number of surveillance cameras in urban spaces (Foucault, 1977). In fact, call centres are the best illustrations, where high emotional discrepancies are occurred as explained above in this study, has been perceived as heavy Foucauldian spin (Thompson, 2003) and the main conce